Labov’s Model of Narrative Analysis

Labov’s Model of Narrative Analysis William Labov’s model of narrative analysis differs from some of the earlier approaches in that his method focuses on oral narrative instead of written text. Earlier linguists, such as Ferdinand de Saussure, believed in a structural approach. This meant that language had to be approached as a fixed, clearly defined set of symbols, which furthermore had to be studied in isolation. However, later linguists, among them Uriel Weinrich, Labov’s mentor, believed that the structural approach failed to assist us in understanding â€Å"the transition of a language from state to state† (Labov 1972:xv). Labov’s focus has been to study language as it is spoken, as a fluid and constantly changing dynamic. Most of Labov’s model of narrative analysis is based on his belief that â€Å"one cannot understand the development of a language change apart from the social life of the community in which it occurs† (1972:3). He feels strongly that observing and recording sound changes is not enough to understand the process of change—that one has to view that change within the context of the community in which it is being made, as it is being made. Using this theory, he carefully chose communities where he felt he could do this most effectively. He conducted the first of several in-depth studies in Martha’s Vineyard, a small, closed island community located in Dukes County, Massachusetts. Labov saw Martha’s Vineyard as an ideal study site primarily because it was very self-contained. In addition, it was physically isolated, located three miles from the mainland. For his next series of studies, Labov selected parts of New York City. One particular area he focused on in the New York City study focused on Black English as it was used in certain parts of the city, specifically Harlem. Although Harlem did not have geographical distance from New York the way Martha’s Vineyard did from Massachusetts, racial and socioeconomic boundaries made it an isolated community in its own way. The main points of Labov’s model were first published in 1972 in an essay entitled â€Å"The Transformation of Experience in Narrative Syntax.† In this essay Labov introduces and explains what he sees as the six main parts of a narrative. He discusses each part as a tool which we can use to analyze narrative patterns, to help recognize recurring themes and ideas. The six main parts of Labov’s model are: abstract; orientation; complicating action; evaluation; resolution; and coda. It is not necessary that all six of these be present in every narrative; for example, some narratives will not have an abstract, while others may not have a coda. Additionally, these components need not appear in a specific order, and each may be present in a variety of ways—these factors are also considered in the final analysis. Labov uses the term â€Å"abstract† to refer to the introductory part of the narrative. This may be, literally, an â€Å"abstract,† or a brief summary of the events; or it may be simply a line or two that will spark the reader’s interest. The role of the abstract is to attract the listener’s interest, and to get the listener to want to hear the rest of the story. The next stage is called â€Å"orientation.† During this phase the speaker gives the listener information about the setting of the story. For example, the speaker will introduce and describe the people or characters who will interact in the story, as well the setting (the place the action occurs) and the time frame. For the story to be valid and understandable to the reader, it is essential that he or she be informed of the time and place in which the narrative unfolds. Following orientation is the â€Å"complicating action.† This refers to the actual events of the narrative, the occurrences that move it ahead. Complicating actions may be physical actions. They may be also be statements spoken aloud, or they may be thought acts â€Å"Evaluation† refers to the point, or reason, the narrative is being told, and it can be done in a number of ways. â€Å"Evaluations† may be specifically and clearly stated, or they may be implied. â€Å"Internal† evaluations are those revealed while the story is taking place, while â€Å"external† evaluations take place outside the immediate action of the story (for example, after the story is told). Another evaluation technique is the â€Å"embedded evaluation.† This can be an explanation offered by one of the people in the story, or by the storyteller directly. In addition, it may also be an event in the story. Following this is what Labov calls the â€Å"result† or â€Å"resolution†: this, basically, is the conclusion. At this point the narrator indicates that the story has come to a close, that a final action has occurred. Finally, there may be a â€Å"coda.† By â€Å"coda† Labov means that the narrator points out the relevance of the story by connecting it with every-day life, or with other events or actions that fall outside the story frame. The coda does not always have to be present. It may also be present without being explicitly stated. One of the issues to be discussed concerning Labov’s model for narrative analysis is the method of data collection, since â€Å"the means used to gather the data interfere with the data to be gathered† (Labov 1972:43). The interview itself may be considered â€Å"public speech.† However, even within this realm, there are other conditions to be considered. For example, does the relationship of the interviewer to the interviewee affect the latter’s speech patterns? Does the use of a recording device affect the interviewee’s choice of words, perhaps make word selection more formal than it ordinarily would be? One way of monitoring this is to compare the subject’s speech patterns during the course of the interview with his or her speech patterns outside the interview setting. For example, the interviewer could also observe the subject while he or she is relaxed with peers or family members in a less formal setting. Labov’s model has strongly influenced language studies since its introduction in 1972, and it continues to be influential in additional settings. With the widespread growth of the internet, we now have a new, informal sort of communication. Linguist Michael Toolan suggests that Labov’s model is a useful tool in the analysis of internet writing. Internet writing is often less formal than academic or other types of writing, but more structured than spoken language. Thus, Labov’s model remains effective today. As language itself continues to grow and change, it is quite probable that Labov’s model will grow to accommodate that change, and to continue to be a useful tool in years to come. REFERENCES Labov, William (1972) Socioloinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of  Pennsylvania Press. Toolan, Michael (1988) Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction London:  Routledge..

The Morality of Reading The Catcher in the Rye in School Essay

The Morality of Reading The Catcher in the Rye in School The story of The Catcher In The Rye, can and is misinterpreted by many people. It is very easy to find The Catcher In The Rye immoral if you are reading the book only to prove that idea. This is so because you can ignore the good things and ideas the author is trying to convey by using certain incidents that might be labeled wrong. On the other hand, if you are reading the book and taking that extra step to analyze the things that Holden Caulfield does and the things that happens to him you end up having a greater appreciation for the novel and what it says. Throughout the book Holden has shown that he is a boy who in reality has a conscience and uses it. One example of this is when Holden goes to see Mr. Spencer, his former history teacher. Holden goes to visit Mr. Spencer, who is ill with the grippe. He goes to tell him not to feel bad for failing him in history. Holden did not have to do this; this was an act of courtesy because he knew that Mr. Spencer felt sorry that he had flunked Holden in his class. Holden also sits through Mr. Spencer’s lecture on how life is a game, a game that one must play according to the rules. Holden who absolutely hates talks like this, did not have to sit through it, he could have gotten up and left, but he didn’t he showed respect for one of his superiors and what he had to say. I believe this is an act that every child and adult should know and do. â€Å"I am the most terrific liar you ever saw in your life.† (16) Holden Caulfield is a good liar. Holden even admits to it. Many people might say that this is setting a bad example but throughout story his lies make people feel better. For example, when Holden was .. ...ain is â€Å"fuck you†. Even though Holden always uses these words, he doesn’t want his younger sister being exposed to that kind of profanity. He does care about innocence and morality. â€Å"†¦You can‘t ever find a place that‘s nice and peaceful, because there isn’t any. You may think there is, but once you get there, when you‘re not looking, somebody‘ll sneak up and write ‘Fuck You’ right under your nose†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The virtuousness, morality, or principles are as apparent as the depravities throughout the novel of The Catcher In The Rye. Although when you actually read and examine the book you realize that there are no immoralities. The only way you can come to that conclusion, is with ignorance and a lack of knowledge. To fully recognize and understand the hidden ideas or picture the author is trying to portray in the readers’ minds you need knowledge and insight.

Surecut Shears Inc.

Company: Fischer is both treasurer and president †¢Stewart did approve the 2,5mill loan extension †¢House hold scissors and industrial shears †¢Severe competition from foreign companies †¢Made profits every year since 1958 †¢Short term borrowing were normally between july and December, additional capital neeede to support sales peak †¢Produce at an even rate throughout the year – contributed to the need of seasonal funds †¢June 1995 †¢3,5 mill loan- anticipated to pay it of in decemebr 95 need for another 1. 2mill in june 1996 because of a plant modernization program †¢Program need 6mil, half completed- finised by august 1995 †¢Expected to save 900 per year in manufacturing costs. †¢Sept 95 †¢Neede 500K more to cover peak season †¢January 1996 †¢Sales came down- retailing downturn- †¢Need for more short term borrowing- higher expenditures for modernization project. †¢Funds needed unitl adjuntsing t o economic conditions †¢Estimated it would not occur until april 96 †¢April 1996 Not able to pay 1. 25mill before seasonal upturn in june †¢Further slaes decline, retail recesiion Why was SureCut Shears unable to repay its bank loan by December 1995 as originally forecast Major sources: †¢Net income †¢Bnak loans †¢Decrease in inventories †¢Decrease in cash Major use †¢Increase in account receivalbes †¢Increase in fixed assets Sources and uses July December Sources Uses Net income2221 AR 3,489 depreciation Bank Loans2,279 AP 177 Long term debt 299 Dividends 600Fixed assets 3,321 Inventories1,604 Tax pre payable303 miseclanoues 1 Decrease in cash1,480 78877887 †¢Decrease in liquidity due to increase in AR †¢CCC is shortened because of higher payment period and lower payable period †¢Decrease in sales growth, therefore less revenues are generated to potencially be converted into cash †¢Build up in inventory from august du e to increased sales. †¢Lower real sales than expected in forecast ii) Why SureCut required $500K more than initially requested? Payment period increased by 10 days from august to September †¢reduction in payable period= negative cash conversion cycle, Sure cut in need of cash †¢COnitnous expenditure on modernization project, was suppose to be only 2990 in proforma, but turned out to be 294k more up to September †¢Operating and investing activites are the major USES OF CASH, although the analisis shows that the cumulative cash is in excess of the proforma, it is because of the short term borrowing that has taken place.

Sight and Blindness in Shakespeares King Lear - Lack of...

Sight and Blindness in King Lear In King Lear, the recurring images of sight and blindness associated with the characters of Lear and Gloucester illustrate the theme of self-knowledge and consciousness that exist in the play. These classic tropes are inverted in King Lear, producing a situation in which those with healthy eyes are ignorant of what is going on around them, and those without vision appear to see the clearest. While Lears blindness is one which is metaphorical, the blindness of Gloucester, who carries the parallel plot of the play, is literal. Nevertheless, both characters suffer from an inability to see the true nature of their children, an ability only gained once the two patriarchs have†¦show more content†¦Kents imperative to see better is prompting Lear not to use his faculty of vision, but, metaphorically, to become conscious of what is going on around him; to see the world as it truly is. It is fascinating that, upon Kents imperative, Lear swears, Now, by Apollo- (1.1.159). As Apollo is the god of the sun whose maxim is to know thyself, it is particularly telling that Lear is invoking the god associated with sharpness of vision and light, when he, himself, remains unenlighten ed. The unrelenting Kent, recognizes Lears blindness as well as the futility of invoking the god of self-knowledge, and, despite the kings growing anger, declares, Thou swearst thy gods in vain (1.1.161). The theme of consciousness is underscored by the Gloucester plot in King Lear. Gloucester, like Lear, is an aging man who has yet to learn the true nature of his children. In this way, he shares Lears metaphorical blindness, but Shakespeare does not stop there; he adds the physical impairment of vision to Gloucesters character as well. It is mentioned that Gloucester requires the need of spectacles in order to read the fabricated letter his son Edmund presents to him. 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